Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the twelfth annual Dayton Model United Nations Conference (DAYMUNC) and the Counter Terrorism Committee (CTC). My name is Ginette A. Ninon, and I am delighted to be the Director of the CTC on this, my third year of participation at the conference. My first year, I represented the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the World Health Organization. My second year, I served on staff as the Rapporteur of the African Union and the Co-Chair of the Rules’ Committee. In addition to my DAYMUNC experience, I have had three years of experience as a delegate at the National Model United Nations Conference in New York City, where I will be the Assistant Director of UNESCO next year (2005). I recently completed a dual Master’s degree - Master of Business Administration in Management, Innovation and Change and Master of Arts in International Relations and Comparative Politics at Wright State University. I am currently the Academic Advisor for Undergraduate Programs at the Raj Soin College of Business and an Adjunct Instructor, teaching Management and Organizational Behavior and Business French, at Wright State University. I plan to pursue a doctoral degree in International Negotiation and Conflict Resolution or a Juris Doctorate in International Law and Human Rights.

The CTC is the United Nations (UN)’s leading body in promoting collective action against international terrorism. As a subsidiary body of the Security Council, the CTC provides reports and letters to the Council on its performance, findings, and activities. As a Member State of the CTC, you will represent and defend the different positions of your assigned State within the context of combating international terrorism. The CTC is a highly technical Committee with limited representation; thus, I trust that you will familiarize yourself with the rules, mandate, composition, expectations, and activities of the CTC as well as the policies of your States. In addition, I strongly encourage you to expand your research beyond the scope of this background guide, and consult several reputable international terrorism and international law scholarly sources (e.g. journals, treaties, newspapers) to fully comprehend the topics and understand the terrorism dilemma.

For the 2005 session, the CTC’s topics are as follows:

1. Combating Acts of Terror Against Internationally Protected Persons
2. Combating Narco-Terrorism
3. Promoting Collective Action Against International Terrorism

The Member States of the CTC have equal voting rights. There is no veto during voting procedure for any Member State or Expert State. The Expert States are appointed to the CTC by the Secretariat with the approval of the CTC Member States. The Experts are placed within the CTC to advise the Committee in the areas of analysis of States’ reports, and the facilitation of assistance in the field of counter-terrorism. For the purposes of this simulation, the experts will play the same role as the Member States and will carry the same voting privileges.

Please, do not hesitate to contact me if you have any questions. I look forward to meeting and working with all of you at the conference. Best of Luck!

Sincerely,

Ginette A. Ninon, Director <ginette.ninon@wright.edu>

Chair: Chris Carlisle

Rapporteur: Cory Funk

The concept of terrorism

“In the global campaign against terrorism, no country has the luxury of remaining on the sidelines. There are no sidelines. Terrorists respect no limits, geographic or moral. The frontlines are everywhere and the stakes are high.” (1)

Terrorism - A new or ancient nefarious phenomenon? / Intro to the concept of terrorism

Terrorism is not a new phenomenon. It is not one person. It is not a single political regime. Certainly, it is not a religion. It is a centuries-old scourge, which has spread throughout our globalized world. Indeed, the oldest terrorists were holy warriors who killed civilians. In first-century Palestine, Jewish Zealots would publicly slit the throats of Romans and their collaborators; in seventh-century India, the Thuggee cult would ritually strangle passersby as sacrifices to the Hindu deity Kali; and, in the eleventh-century Middle East, the Shiite sect known as the Assassins, would eat hashish before murdering civilian foes. (2) Historians can trace recognizably modern forms of terrorism back to organizations such as Narodnaya Volya (meaning People’s Will), an anti-tsarist group in Russia. One successful and early case of terrorism was the 1914 assassination of Austrian Archduke, Franz Ferdinand, by a Serb extremist, an event that helped trigger World War I. Additional familiar forms of terrorism, often custom-made for TV cameras, first appeared on July 22, 1968, when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine undertook the first terrorist hijacking of a commercial airplane. Today, Al-Qaeda, among other terrorist groups, exemplifies how terrorist networks have twisted the benefits and conveniences of our increasingly open, integrated, and modernized world to achieve their destructive agenda. (3)

Terrorism - Origin and Definition

The term terrorism was coined during France’s Reign of Terror in 1793-1794. Originally, the leaders attempted to weed out traitors among the revolutionary ranks by praising terror as the best way to defend liberty; however, as the French Revolution soured, the word soon took on grim echoes of state violence and guillotines. Today, most terrorists dislike the label. (4) For centuries, the term puzzled decision and policy-makers. Though analysts “produced a variety of definitions for it and developed several classification systems, or typologies, to describe it” (5), scholars have been unable to coin a single definition. Terrorism remains a crucial issue on the international community’s agenda even though a universal definition still does not exist. (6) The U.S. State Department defines terrorism as a “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.” (7) A former deputy chief of the CIA’s Counter terrorist Center argues terrorism entails four key elements:

• It is premeditated - Planned in advance, rather than an impulsive act of rage;
• It is political - Not criminal, like the violence that groups such as the mafia use to get money, but designed to change the existing political order;
• It is aimed at civilians - Not at military targets or combat-ready troops; and,
• It is carried out by sub national groups - Not by the army of a country. (8)

Terrorism is not just about unthinking brutal violence. Experts agree that terrorist acts are often deliberately spectacular, designed to rattle and influence a wide audience, beyond the victims of the violence itself. They believe that there is almost always a strategy behind terrorist actions. (9) Whether it takes the form of bombings, shootings, hijackings or assassinations, terrorism is neither random, spontaneous, nor blind; it is a deliberate use of violence against civilians for political or religious ends. Its goal is to use the psychological impact of violence or of the threat of violence to affect political change. In 1974, a terrorist expert asserted, “Terrorism is theatre.” (10) In 1937, the League of Nations held one of the first international conventions focusing on terrorism, the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism (1937) (11), which started the first of 12 major “multilateral conventions and protocols related to states’ responsibilities for combating terrorism.” (12) However, several States are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them. (13) The UN General Assembly (UNGA)’s Sixth Committee, 57th Session (2002), is currently considering a draft Comprehensive Convention on finding measures to eliminate International Terrorism, which would include a definition of terrorism if adopted. (14) The CTC will ensure that all Member States implement and adopt these conventions and protocols. (15)

Introductory Remarks

“The work of the Counter Terrorism Committee, and the cooperation it has received from Member States have been unprecedented and exemplary”. (16)

History of the Counter Terrorism Committee

The CTC’s mandate

Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations (UN) Charter (concerning threats to international peace and security), the Security Council adopted Resolution 1373 on September 28, 2001, establishing the CTC, as one of its subsidiary bodies, to reaffirm “its unequivocal condemnation of the terrorist attacks, which occurred in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania on September 11, 2001, and to express its determination to prevent all such acts.” (17) The Security Council (SC) is the most powerful body of the UN for making recommendations and taking immediate and decisive action. (18) Its job is to “maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats of peace and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace.” (19) As such, the SC directs, organizes, reviews, and oversees the CTC’s work and structure of the CTC at regular intervals. (20)

The CTC’s composition

The CTC consists of all 15 members of the Security Council, who elect the Chairman and Vice-Chairmen of the Committee following the adoption of resolution 1373 (2001). (21) Two new Vice-Chairmen, from Brazil and Algeria, were elected following the departure of Mexico from the Security Council at the end of 2003 and the election of the Russian Federation to the chairmanship of the CTC respectively. The CTC chairmanship passed from His Excellency Sir Jeremy Greenstock, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, to His Excellency Mr. Inocencio F. Arias of Spain on April 4, 2003. (22) On 28 May 2004, the chairmanship then temporarily passed to His Excellency Mr. Alexander V. Konuzin, Chargé d’affaires of the Russian Federation, before being handed over to His Excellency Mr. Andrey I. Denisov, the Permanent Representative from August 3, 2004 thru December 31, 2004. (23) The CTC divides the task of analyzing States’ reports, submitted pursuant to paragraph 6 of resolution 1373 (2001) between three distinct Sub-Committees - A (Brazil [Chair], France, Germany, Philippines, and the Russian Federation), B (Angola [Chair], China, Romania, Spain, and the United States), and C (Algeria [Chair], Benin, Chile, Pakistan, and Poland). (24) The Sub-Committees meet periodically to assess States’ reports, with input provided by the CTC’s expert advisers. (25) Once a response has been drafted and cleared in Sub-Committee, it is forwarded to the CTC for approval and dispatch.

The CTC’s expectations’ from Member States

The CTC is an instrument to monitor the implementation of resolution 1373 by all States and to increase States’ capability to fight terrorism. The CTC is not a sanctions committee and does not have a list of terrorist organizations or individuals. (26) This body asks every State to take specific action to meet the requirements of the resolution based on the specific circumstances in each country. It seeks to establish a basis for ongoing dialogue between the SC and all Member States on how best to raise national capacity against terrorism such as creating and implementing anti-terrorism laws and procedures within the Members and their regions. (27) Resolution 1373 imposes binding obligations on all States, with the aim of combating terrorism in all its forms and manifestations. The resolution requires Member States to (a) deny all forms of financial support for terrorist groups, (b) suppress the provision of safe haven, sustenance or support for terrorists, (c) share information with other governments on any groups practicing or planning terrorist acts, (d) co-operate with other governments in the investigation, detection, arrest, and prosecution of those involved in such acts, (e) criminalize active and passive assistance for terrorism in domestic laws and bring violators of these laws to justice, and (f) become party as soon as possible to the relevant international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism. (28)

The CTC’s collaboration with States

Pursuant to resolution 1373 paragraph 6, the CTC expect all States to report on steps taken or planned to implement resolution 1373 (29), including their current counter-terrorism legislations, frameworks, and mechanisms to eliminate the financing of terrorism. (30) One of the CTC’s Sub-Committees reviews all reports. Under the authority of the SC, the CTC established the Technical Assistance Team (TAT) (31), consisting of counter-terrorism independent Expert Advisers, with experience in various areas, including legislative drafting, financial law and practice, immigration law and practice, police and law enforcement, and illegal arms trafficking, to guide the Sub-Committees and Member States in understanding the technical aspects of new legislation in the counter-terrorism field appearing or included in States’ reports. (32) The CTC analyzes the States’ reports, assesses their compliance with resolution 1373, and sends a letter to each State, asking further questions on issues mentioned in their reports, and any other matters the CTC may consider relevant to the implementation of resolution 1373. Within three months, States provide a new report addressing the CTC’s new concerns. (33)

The CTC’s Member States for the 2005 DAYMUN Conference are as follows:
(Please note that the asterisk represents the Expert Advisors in this Committee)

Transition: How do we respond to such a nefarious opponent? How do we combat acts of terror against internationally protected persons? How do we fight against other forms of terrorism such as narco-terrorism? How does the international persevere in its efforts to eliminate this widespread violence?

I. Combating Acts of Terror Against Internationally Protected Persons

For the United Nations, it is essential that the global response to terrorism be truly universal and not divisive. (34)

On 5 May 1970, the Permanent Representative of the Netherlands addressed a letter expressing concerns to the President of the UN Security Council about the increasing numbers of attacks on diplomats worldwide. Upon reception of and reflection on the letter, the President of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the Chairman of the International Law Commission (ILC) set up a Working Group responsible for investigating and reporting on the crimes committed against diplomatic agents and other persons entitled to special protection under international law.

In November 1972, the Sixth Committee of the UN General Assembly (UNGA) considered these articles and, in resolution 2926, invited States, specialized agencies, and interested inter-governmental organizations to submit their written comments concerning the prevention and punishment of crimes against diplomatic agents and other protected persons. (35)

Internationally Protected Persons

On 14 December 1973, the UNGA’s Sixth Committee adopt resolution 3166 by consensus, thereby adopting the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons (36), which represents a major step against terrorism aimed at diplomats and others having special status under international law. (37) It defines Internationally Protected Persons (IPPs) as Senior Government Officials, Diplomatic Agents, Heads of State or Government, Ministers for Foreign Affairs, State officials and representatives of international organizations, and their families, entitled to special protection from attack in a foreign State under international law. (38) It applies to the crimes of direct involvement or complicity in the murder, kidnapping or attack, whether actual, attempted or threatened, on the person, official premises, private accommodation or means of transport of diplomatic agents and other “internationally protected persons”. (39) States Parties have obligations to establish their jurisdiction over the offences described, make the offences punishable by appropriate penalties, take alleged offenders into custody, prosecute or extradite alleged offenders, cooperate in preventive measures, and exchange information and evidence needed in related criminal proceedings. The offences referred to in the Convention are deemed to be extraditable offences between States Parties under existing extradition treaties, and under the Convention itself. (40)

At the dawn of the new millennium, UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, said, “Leaders from all over the world will come to New York for the Millennium Summit. They will consider the challenges ahead, and what the United Nations can do to face them. Those leaders will be representing you, the peoples of the United Nations. It is up to you to make sure they come here firmly resolved to take decisions which can lead to a better life for all of us, and for our children.” (41) Since the Millennium Summit, the international community dealt with both new and old threats to international peace and security. Civilians inevitably bear the cost of complex and intractable conflicts that lead to the death or forced displacement of hundreds of thousands of people. In recent years, terrorist groups targeted several IPPs for the purpose of making or sending threatening statements about their political and/or religious positions. (42) Though the IPPs, such as U.S. Ambassador to Iraq or Médecins sans Frontières humanitarian workers, are still vulnerable today, for they travel extensively, are engaged in aid operations or are involved in projects, such as disaster relief, in countries like Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq, Sudan, the Russian Federation (43), the international community, along with the UN, and various organizations such as the Institut International de Droit Humanitaire de San Remo, the Monaco Red Cross, the Commission Médico-Juridique de Monaco, and the Red Cross/Red Crescent, are dedicated to punishing all acts of terror committed against them. (44) On March 17, 1992, Argentina experienced one of its deadliest terrorist attacks in history (45), including the terrorist attacks on the Israeli Embassy in Buenos Aires, which marked the beginning of Middle East terrorism in Latin America. (46) A car bomb killed 29 people and injured over 250 persons. Among the victims were Israeli diplomats, children, and clergy from a church located across the street, and other passerby.” (47) In 2003, there were 190 acts of terrorism compared to 198 attacks in 2002. (48) Terrorism stuck another diplomatic facility in 2003 when a truck bomb in Baghdad, Iraq, killed 17 and injured 100 at the United Nations headquarters on August 20, 2003. (49) UN humanitarian and civilian staff members, the Red Cross Movement, along with several other non-governmental organizations, such as Médecins sans Frontières (MSF), were also affected by these immoral acts of terror and violence. (50) In addition, UN Secretary General, kofi Annan, invites Member States to participate in the international treaty framework to reaffirm their commitment to the rule of law in international relations and, in particular, international humanitarian laws and treaties pertaining to the protection of civilians and IPPs. (51)

Conventions that Protect Diplomatic Officials

In light of the rampant terrorist events, the international community, through the auspices of the UN CTC, has ratified a series of multilateral conventions and protocols, treaties, and resolutions to combat terrorism. (52) However, several states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or have not yet implementing them. (53)

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961), reminds the international community of the status of diplomatic agents. (54) Under this Convention, “the sending state is responsible for the protection of its own nationals unless otherwise waived.” (55) Moreover, “if diplomatic relations are broken, the receiving state must even in case of armed conflict, respect and protect the premises of the mission, together with its property and archives….” (56) Unlike the Vienna Convention (1961), the Convention on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons (1973) “outlaws the attacks on senior government officials and diplomats.” (57) The Convention states that “crimes against diplomatic agents and other internationally protected persons jeopardizing the safety of these persons create a serious threat to the maintenance of normal international relations which are necessary for co-operation among states.” (58)

The International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages or Hostages Convention (1979) asserts that “any person who seizes or detains and threatens to kill, to injure, or to continue to detain another person in order to compel a third party, namely, a State, an international intergovernmental organization, a natural or juridical person, or a group of persons, to do or abstain from doing any act as an explicit or implicit condition for the release of the hostage commits the offence of taking of hostage within the meaning of this Convention.” (59)

The CTC’s effort to protect Persons of Diplomacy

The CTC has made progress toward its ambitious goal of raising the level of performance of the governments of all 191 Member States in the fight against terrorism. Since its inauguration, all 191 Members interacted with the Committee, and several took positive steps in revising their municipal laws to better fight terrorism. (60) The CTC’s program of action ensures all precautions are taken to combat terrorism. (61) The CTC implements not only Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001), but also all international instruments that combat terrorism and prevent future terrorist attacks. (62) As a force multiplier, “the CTC has been successful in involving international regional and sub-regional organizations in this fight against terrorism, and in aiding in the global implementation of all international instruments that combat terrorism.” (63)

The CTC must be able to enforce the ratification and implementation of the declarations, resolutions, and protocols that protect civilians from these types of events. There are internationally recognized instruments of the UNGA that protect children, such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which was accepted in 1989. The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first “legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights – civil and political rights as well as economic, social, and cultural rights. Two Optional Protocols regarding children’s participation in armed conflict, child trafficking, child prostitution, and child pornography, were adopted to strengthen the provisions of the Convention in these areas.” (64) The Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) protects civilians or persons taking “no active part in hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds, detention, or any other cause, shall in all circumstances be treated. (65)

Transition: There are various forms or types of terrorism, one being narco-terrorism.

II. Combating Narco-Terrorism

“Drugs seem to have a stronger impact on people than is often assumed. They seem to affect not only the psyche of those who ingest them but also the minds of the professionals and officials who intend to control their production and use.” (66)

Definition of narco-terrorism

Narco-terrorism refers to terrorist acts carried out by groups that are directly or indirectly involved in cultivating, manufacturing, transporting, or distributing illicit drugs. Although the term is generally applied to groups that use the drug trade to fund terrorism, it has sometimes been used to refer to the phenomenon of increasingly close ties between powerful drug lords motivated by simple criminal profit and terrorist groups with political agendas, particularly in Colombia and Afghanistan. (67) However, some experts say that narco-terrorism is too vague and is mostly used by politically driven Western politicians and journalists out to score rhetorical points. They argue that nearly every terrorist group operating today raises some money from the drug trade, and that while terrorists and drug traffickers often share some short-term goals, they have different long-term objectives - political goals for terrorists and greed for drug lords. (68)

Where is narco-terrorism more predominant in the world? / Where do narco-terrorist organizations operate?

Narco-terrorism is prevalent in several countries, including Afghanistan (heroin), Bolivia (coca/cocaine dilemma), Columbia, Peru, Sri Lanka, and Syria. The majority of narco-terrorist groups thrive in chaotic or failed states with ineffective governments that have been destabilized by war and internal conflict. A few examples include Bolivia - coco and cocaine dilemma; Colombia - a large and fragmented country in the throes of a decades-long conflict over power and resources - which produces 80 percent of the world’s cocaine and 70 percent of the U.S. heroin supply (69); Lebanon, plagued by drug traffickers and terrorist groups since its own harrowing 15-year civil war began in 1975 (70); and Afghanistan, where the 1990 retreat by occupying Soviet troops left the economically devastated country vulnerable to control by warlords and Islamist extremists. (71) Furthermore, terrorists and drug traffickers make it harder for a weakened state to form a stable central government by promoting violence, tax evasion, and lawlessness. (72)

Which terrorist groups participate in narco-terrorism?

There are numerous terrorist organizations, which participate in narco-terrorism. A few of them are listed as follows:

• The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), a Colombian leftist group, raises funds by taxing coca farmers in the Switzerland-sized zone of the country it controls. FARC forces peasant farmers to grow the coca used to make cocaine. It also makes money by protecting cocaine laboratories and clandestine airstrips and by trafficking in drugs locally. (73)
• The National Liberation Army (ELN), another Colombian leftist group, taxes growers of marijuana and opium poppies and protects drug-lab operations. However, it generates far less of its funding from drugs than does FARC. (74)
• The United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), which includes several right-wing paramilitary groups, gets 70 percent of its income from processing and exporting cocaine. It claims to be leaving the drug business, but experts doubt that all of its members will comply. (75)
• Remnants of Shining Path, a Peruvian leftist group, finance some operations by protecting cocaine smugglers in jungle areas under its control and by taxing the coca trade. (76)
• Some members of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, a Sri Lankan separatist group, traffic in heroin, and the group reportedly has close ties to drug-trafficking networks in nearby Burma. (77)
• Hezbollah smuggles Latin American cocaine to Europe and the Middle East and has smuggled opiates out of Lebanon’s Bekaa Valley, although poppy cultivation there is declining. (78)
• The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), a Marxist separatist group based in Turkey, taxes ethnic Kurdish drug traffickers, and individual PKK cells traffic in heroin. (79)
• The Real IRA, an Irish Republican Army (IRA) splinter group that opposes the peace process in Northern Ireland, is suspected of trafficking drugs, although the extent of its involvement is unclear. (80)

How are terrorist groups connected to the drug trade?

Several terrorist groups, like Colombia’s FARC, collect taxes from people who cultivate or process illicit drugs on lands that it controls; others, including Hezbollah and Colombia’s AUC, traffic drugs themselves. Moreover, states funded by the drug trade support some terrorist groups; for instance, Afghanistan’s former Taliban rulers earned an estimated $40 million to $50 million per year from taxes related to opium. (81) The drug trade is also a significant part of the economies of Syria, which has funded terrorist organizations such as Hezbollah, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command, and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (82), and Lebanon, a haven for numerous terrorist groups including Hezbollah and Hamas. (83)

Why would terrorists turn to drug trafficking? / Is the drug trade lucrative?

Terrorist groups are interested in drug trafficking because they need money for weapons, equipment, training, computers and other information systems, transportation, bribes, safe houses, forged passports and other documents, and even payroll. The drug business is extremely lucrative. It is a practical way to get rich faster. Heroin, cocaine, and marijuana are uncomplicated and cheap to produce, but since they are illegal and therefore risky to supply, terrorist organizations can earn more than their weight in gold on the vast international black market. In 1998, the UN estimated that the illicit drug business generated about $400 billion per year. (84) Also, terrorists accumulate large sums of cash without being detected and caught by authorities because the drug trade is very secretive. (85)

Is narco-terrorism increasing since September 11, 2001? / Narco-terrorism in the aftermath of September 11th

According to US authorities, the new international climate, including crackdowns on terrorist funding and growing international pressure on state sponsors of terrorism, may drive some terrorists deeper into the drug trade. One example is Hezbollah. (86)

Drug trafficking versus religious and political beliefs: Acceptable or Not?

Drug trafficking often violates some terrorists’ religious or political beliefs; however, terrorists rarely let ideology get in the way of funding their activities. Some Islamist groups, including the Sunni Taliban and the Shiite extremists of Hezbollah, decreed that Islam forbids taking drugs such as opium, but permits producing and selling them. Indeed, the Taliban did declare a ban on poppy cultivation in Afghanistan in 2000 to simply to drive the price of opium up by decreasing its supply. The drug wealth has even helped far-left terrorist organizations such as Colombia’s FARC cultivate a taste for capitalism; the group, which receives more than $300 million per year from drug sales, reportedly uses just 10 percent of that to fund terrorist activities. (87)

Diplomatic ways/avenues to fight against narco-terrorism / How is the US fighting narco-terrorism? / The US’s approach to fight against narco-terrorism

Though the Bush administration is increasingly concerned about links between terrorism and the drug trade, it still has not developed a clear and consistent strategy that unites anti-drug and counter terrorism policies. A supplement to the 2002 U.S. budget allocated about $27 billion in emergency funds for counter terrorism, $35 million of which were allocated to Colombia. Colombia is the third-largest recipient of US foreign aid due to the multibillion-dollar “Plan Colombia” aid program designed to help the country’s chronically weak government combat narco trafficking. Washington has recast Plan Colombia to focus not just on combating drugs but also on fighting narco terrorist rebels. (88) The DEA focuses more on gathering intelligence, which is sometimes related to terrorist activity and can be shared with the CIA, the FBI, and other federal agencies. It has 56 offices internationally and is considering reopening its office in Kabul, Afghanistan, which was closed in 1980 after the Soviet invasion. During the 1990s, the US government was preoccupied with cracking down on drug trafficking in Colombia and Mexico, but paid little attention to Afghanistan’s flourishing drug economy, which produced 70 percent of the world’s supply of opium in 2000. (89)

Terrorism versus Narco-terrorism: How are the resources allocated? / Has the war on terrorism taken resources away from the war on drugs?

The war on terrorism is absorbing most of the resources supposedly reserved to fight the war on drugs. Since September 11, the FBI has reassigned 400 agents to counter terrorism from drug enforcement. (90) In addition, the US Customs Service’s top priority entailed blocking terrorists and weapons from entering the United States rather than detecting drug smugglers. (91)

UN Crime and Drug Conventions

The UN Office on Drug and Crime Prevention (UNODC), consisting of the UN International Drug Control Programme and the UN Centre for International Crime Prevention, was established to enable the UN to focus and enhance its capacity to address the interrelated issues of drug control, crime prevention, and international terrorism in all its forms. (92) Drugs destroy lives and communities, undermine sustainable human development and generate crime. Drugs affect all sectors of society in all countries by eliminating the freedom and development of young people who are the world’s most valuable asset. Drugs are a grave threat to the health and well-being of all mankind, the independence of States, democracy, the stability of nations, the structure of all societies, and the dignity and hope of millions of people and their families. (93) The UNODC has compiled a library of international drug-control related resolutions and decisions, included the International Cooperation against the world drug problem (94), adopted since 1946 by the UN General Assembly, its Economic and Social Council, and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. (95)

The UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime is a legally binding instrument, established by the General Assembly, to combat transnational organized crime such as money laundering, corruption, and the obstruction of investigations or prosecutions. The convention encourages UN Member States to take a series of measures against transnational organized crime, including the creation of domestic criminal offences to combat the problem, the adoption of new, sweeping frameworks for mutual legal assistance, extradition, law enforcement cooperation, and technical assistance and training. (96) The convention is a major step forward in the fight against transnational organized crime and reiterates the necessary cooperation among Member States to solve the serious and growing threats associated with narco-terrorism, in investigating, prosecuting, and punishing crimes committed by organized criminal groups where either the crimes or the groups who commit them have some element of transnational involvement. (97) To supplement the Convention, two Protocols - Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women, Children; and Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Air and Sea - address specific issues related to transnational organized crime that are of particular concern to UN Member States. (98) The Protocol against Trafficking in Persons deals with the problem of modern slavery and condemn the way organized criminal groups take advantage of people’s desire to seek a better life. The Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants tackles the growing problem of organized criminal groups who smuggle migrants, often at high risk to the migrants and at great profit for the offenders. Migrants are often confined or coerced into exploitive or oppressive forms of employment, often in the sex trade or in dangerous occupations, with the illicit incomes generated from these activities going to organized crime. (99) By ratifying the Convention and its Protocols, Member States commit to combat drugs and human trafficking. (100) A third Protocol dealing with the illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms, parts and components, and ammunition, remains under discussion. (101) Recognizing the importance of having an effective international legal instrument against corruption, independent of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (102), the General Assembly adopted the UN Convention against Corruption after seven negotiating sessions of the Ad Hoc Committee. (103) In addition, the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocols was established to improve the capacity of States Parties to combat transnational organized crime and to promote and review the implementation of this Convention. (104)

The International Narcotic Control Board (INCB)

The INCB is dedicated to fighting against narco-terrorism. As such, it adopted three conventions - the Single Convention on Narcotic drugs (1961), the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971), and the UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in narcotic drugs and Psychotropic Substances (1988) - to reinforce the urgency to control substance use, abuse, and dependency. (105) The Single Convention on Narcotic drugs aims to combat drug abuse by coordinated international action and cooperation to deter and discourage drug traffickers, such as FARC, and limit the possession, use, trade in, distribution, import, export, manufacture, and production of drugs exclusively to medical and scientific purposes. (106) The Convention on Psychotropic Substances establishes an international control system for psychotropic substances. It responds to the diversification and expansion of the spectrum of drugs abuse and introduces controls over a number of synthetic drugs according to their abuse potential and their therapeutic value. (107) It also stresses the importance of national and international cooperation between Member States and international organizations to campaign against the illicit traffic in psychotropic substances and reinforce judicial proceedings through diplomatic channels. (108) Similarly, the UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (1988) provides comprehensive measures against drug trafficking, including provisions against money laundering and the diversion of precursor chemicals. (109) It encourages international cooperation through extradition of drug traffickers, controlled deliveries, and transfer of proceedings. (110)

The Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council established a Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, consisting of 40 members, to strengthen international cooperation in crime prevention and criminal justice. (111) The Commission provides policy guidance to the UN related to crime prevention and criminal justice; develops, monitors and reviews the implementation of the UN Crime Prevention Programme; facilitates and helps to coordinate the activities of the interregional and regional institutes on the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders; mobilizes the support of Member States; and prepares the UN congresses on the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders. (112)

The World Health Organization (WHO)

The WHO is dedicated to combating substance use, abuse, and dependence. Its efforts and assistance to Member States is significant in suppressing narcotic drugs and ultimately narco-terrorism worldwide. Indeed, it is the only agency dealing with all psychoactive substances, regardless of their legal status. The WHO’s mandate in the area of psychoactive substance use includes the prevention and reduction of the negative health and social consequences of psychoactive substance use; the reduction of the demand for non-medical use of psychoactive substances; and, the assessment of psychoactive substances. Since its founding in 1948, the WHO played a leading role in supporting Member States to prevent and reduce the problems due to psychoactive substance use, and in recommending which psychoactive substances should be regulated. In 2000, the Department of Substance Abuse was merged with the Department of Mental Health to form the Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, reflecting the many common approaches of management of mental health and substance use disorders. (113) The WHO and its World Health Assembly (114) adopted a series of conventions and treaties, including the Action in respect of International Conventions on Narcotic Drugs, the Implementation of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances Functions and Responsibilities of the WHO (115), the Prevention and Control of Drug and Alcohol Abuse (116), the Reduction of Demand for Illicit Drugs (117), and the Health of Youth. (118)

III. Promoting Collective Action Against International Terrorism

For the fight against terrorism to be effective, it was essential that everyone worked together to ensure that universal principles prevailed over lawlessness. Cooperation among international, regional and sub regional organizations was, thus, essential. For the international efforts to be effective in countering terrorism, cooperation must be made systematic, ensuring a proper division of labour based on comparative advantages. (119)

A meticulous discussion regarding the promotion of collective action against international terrorism requires a clear understanding of definitions and concepts such as terror, terrorism, and terrorist, which are often used interchangeably. “‘Terror’ is a general concept of emotionally enhanced fear. ‘Terrorism’ is a description of the process of terror-violence. ‘Terrorist’ is the label society attributes to the perpetrator of a terror-inspiring act.” (120) The task of defining ‘International Terrorism’ inclusively and unambiguously is quite challenging, but not impossible. (122) It is crucial that the international community define those terms to ensure accurate policy- and decisions-making processes. (123) The President of the UNGA stated, “We must overcome both challenges and tragedy and use our collective will and collective action as building blocks for a better future, and for a better world.” (124) As the UN’s “leading body to promote collective action against international terrorism” (125), the CTC’s responsibility is to monitor Member States’ implementation of Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) (126), and emphasize the importance of expanding and improving international cooperation among Member States, on a bilateral, regional, and multilateral basis, which will help prevent and progressively eliminate numerous acts of international terror and their underlying causes. (127) The international community fully endorses A/RES/42/159, focusing on measures to prevent international terrorism and studying the underlying causes of those forms of terrorism and acts of violence, which lie in misery, frustration, grievance, and despair. (128)

The International, Regional, and Sub-regional strategies / actions to counter terrorism

International Action(s)

As terrorism threatens every society, international cooperation is essential. The CTC recognizes international, regional and sub-regional organizations, and agencies as important resources to assist Member States in their effort to counter terrorism effectively. (129) As mentioned by the President of the CTC, Ambassador Inocencio F. Arias, “Your organizations have the experience, expertise and will to develop and implement the general consensus among the United Nations Member-States, so you should take the lead in the particular areas or regions where you already work.” (130) The UN and several other organizations, including the International Police Organization (Interpol), have talked about preventive measures to combat terrorism. (131) In fact, one of Interpol’s objectives is to “be the world’s pre-eminent police organization in support of all organizations, authorities, and services whose mission is preventing, detecting, and suppressing crime.” (132) Traditionally, Interpol shares information, facilitates international cooperation, and provides its members with expertise in all aspects of combating and preventing crime. (133) In addition, Interpol founded the Public Safety and Terrorism Sub-Directorate to assist Member States in the global war on terror. (134) In October 2001, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering expanded its mandate to include the financing of terrorism. (135), and implemented the “Eight Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing,” which complement the “Forty Recommendations” as a promising initiative to reduce and eventually eradicate the financing of terrorism. (136)

Regional and/or Sub-regional Action(s)

Fighting Terrorism in Africa

Over the past decade, international terrorism has become the most serious threat to global peace, security, and development. Indeed, terrorism undermines the most cherished values and fundamental principles of the 21st century around the world, particularly in Africa. The African Union (AU) strongly condemns all acts and forms of terrorism in Africa and wherever they may occur. (137) Terrorism violates international law, including the UN Charter and the principles and values articulated in the Constitutive Act of the African Union and the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council (PSC Protocol). (138) African countries recognize the imperative need to combat and eradicate terrorism through a comprehensive approach that addresses its root causes. (139) Therefore, Member States of the AU adopted instruments and decisions creating a common framework for the prevention and fight against terrorism in Africa. (140) They have also signed, ratified, and/or acceded to international counter-terrorism instruments, particularly those listed in the annex to the 1999 Organization of African Union (OAU) Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism. (141) The convention’s wide scope includes an attempted definition of terrorist acts, provision for regional cooperation and regulations on States’ jurisdiction. (142) It combats of all forms of terrorism, regardless of origin, cause, and objective. (143) To further strengthen their collective dedication in fighting against terrorism, Members of the AU established, in Algiers, Algeria, an African Centre for the Study and Research on Terrorism, as an institution of the AU Commission to improve the capacity of the Union in the prevention and combating of terrorism in Africa. (144)

While attending the Summit of heads of State and Government on the African pact against terrorism, in Dakar, Senegal, the Assistant Secretary General for Political Affairs delivered a message from the UN Secretary General to the African leaders, stating “ We must take vigorous action against terrorism and craft a long-term strategy in order to defeat this scourge, which has already struck Africa in the form of the vicious bombings in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, in 1998. However, we should make sure that our action does not create divisions between people of different religions and cultures, nor polarize the world into mutually hostile camps, rich against poor or north against south. The long-term war on terrorism requires us to fight on all these fronts. Indeed, the best defense against these despicable acts is the establishment of a global society based on common values of solidarity, social justice and respect for human rights.” (145)

The Convention of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) on Combating International Terrorism (1999) adopted by Member States of the OIC pursuant to tenets of Sharia law (Islamic law) which rejects all forms of violence, promotes cooperation among Member States for combating terrorist crimes that threaten the security and stability of Islamic States and endanger their vital interests. (146) Under the convention guidelines, States exchange information with other parties to combat terrorist crimes, cooperate with other states and extend assistance in the field of investigation, exchange expertise on combating terrorism, and educate and inform the international community of the true representation of tolerance in Islam. (147)

Combating Terrorism in Asia and Europe

Regional organizations serve as intermediaries between the CTC and Member States. They ensure that Member States comply with the CTC’s guidelines. For example, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) informs the CTC about the specific measures taken by Members of ASEAN and the organization as a whole to fulfill the objectives of the CTC’s three stages in combating terrorism. (148) Specifically, the ASEAN’s report includes the steps taken by ASEAN’s Members to meet the obligations of “Stage A” of the CTC; their progress in becoming party to some of the 12 international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism; and, the establishment of a regional database for distributing information on respective national laws, regulations, bilateral and multilateral treaties or agreements of respective countries. (149) The reports also contain the progress on some aspects of “Stages B” and “Stage C.” (150) The Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe assists its members in various ways to meet the requirements for the CTC’s three stages. (151)

Combating Terrorism in Latin America

The Organization of American States (OAS) established the Convention to Prevent and Punish the Act of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes Against Persons and Related Extortions that are of International Significance (1971) to facilitate additional cooperation between states party to the Convention. (152) Under the Convention’s guidelines, States must strive to use all effective measures to prevent and punish acts of terrorism, particularly targeting kidnappings, murders, and other forms of terrorist aggressions against human life. (153) Contrary to the aforementioned convention established by the OAS, the Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism (1987), adopted by the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation, regulates the extradition of captured terrorists between Member States. (154) The guidelines of the convention are set forth to ensure that effective measures are taken to prevent perpetrators of terrorist acts from escaping prosecution and punishment. (155)

Fighting Terrorism in North America

The events of September 11th have not only changed the United States, but also the entire world. The current US administration took a hard look at the US foreign policy and national security objectives around the world. With the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the US undertook its largest government reorganization since World War II. (156) Americans know that terrorism did not begin on September 11, 2001. Unfortunately, its history is long and all too familiar. For instance, the first major terrorist attack on New York City’s financial district did not happen on September 11th or even with the 1993 truck bombing of the World Trade Center. (157) Rather, it occurred on September 16, 1920, when anarchists exploded a horse cart filled with dynamite near the intersections of Wall and Broad Streets, taking 40 lives and wounding about 300 others. (158) Starting with the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, American history in the 20th century was punctuated by terrorism. (159) Some of the most terrible events were the attack by Puerto Rican nationalists on the Capitol Building in Washington, in 1954; a string of aircraft hijackings beginning in 1961; and, the downing of Pan Am 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, in December 1988, when all 259 passengers aboard were killed. (160)

Human Rights and Terrorism

The UN denounces terrorism for it is “a weapon for alienated, desperate people, and often a product of despair. If human beings everywhere are given real hope of achieving self-respect and a decent life by peaceful methods, terrorists will become much harder to recruit, and will receive far less sympathy and support from society at large.” (161) The founders of the UN knew that peace and human rights belong together. They were determined to save subsequent generations from the scourge of war, and reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights. (162) Widespread violations of human rights in any State warn us that conflict is on the horizon. (163) Addressing the Commission on Human Rights, UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, said, “Human Rights must not be sacrificed to counter terrorism”. (164) Rather, “we must continue the struggle to give everyone on this planet a reason to value their own rights, and to respect those of others. At the same time, we must constantly reaffirm the primacy of the rule of law, and the principle that certain acts are so evil that no cause, however noble, can justify their use. The end does not justify the means. Instead, the means tarnish, and may pervert, the end”. (165) In today’s interconnected world, we must keep in mind that conflicts in one country have repercussions for another far away. As we unite to take action against terrorism, let us remember that the human rights we are defending are universal. Only if we observe early warnings, and take early action to uphold human rights, can we save the people of a specific State, and often its neighbors too, from the scourge of war. (166) Also, let us work harder than ever to defeat racism and discrimination. Let us treat all men and women on this planet, regardless of their age, race, religion or nationality, as fellow members of the human family, whose destiny we share. Let us respect their rights, as we would wish them to respect ours. (167)

Terrorism endangers and takes innocent human lives, jeopardizes fundamental freedoms, hinders development and democracy, and violates human rights. An international cooperation on counter terrorism is essential to free people from the scourge of war and terror, whether within or between States, which has already claimed more than 5 million lives in the past decade; (168) to defeat terrorist organizations of global reach by attacking their sanctuaries, leadership, command, control, communications, and finances; (169) and, to deny further sponsorship and material support to terrorists by working closely with willing and able allies, helping willing but weak States, persuading reluctant States, and using all the elements of national power to compel the unwilling ones. (170) Additionally, the international community shall pay special attention to all situations, including colonialism, racism and situations involving mass and flagrant violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, and those involving alien domination and occupation, that may give rise to international terrorism and/or may threaten international peace and security. (171) Furthermore, the international community can facilitate the use of collective action to combat international terrorism by signing, ratifying, and agreeing to uphold the current international legislation dealing with combating international terrorism (172) The CTC will constantly impose measures not against a State, its leaders, nationals, or commodities, but against terrorists and their vicious acts occurring throughout the world. (173) The CTC will continuously assist the global community in dealing with international terrorism. (174)

Conclusion

The international community progressed tremendously over the last decades with the adoption of 12 major international conventions, nine regional treaties, and two declarations against terrorism. (175) The Security Council passed over 10 resolutions after the atrocities of September 11th. (176) The long-term effectiveness of this legal framework strongly depends on its ratification and implementation by the international community (177), particularly Member States’ willingness to establish national counter-terrorism legislation, as many of them have not yet signed and ratified the 12 major anti-terrorism treaties and conventions. The Policy Working Group on the United Nations and Terrorism asserts that the delayed signing process of these conventions continuously hinders the progression of the work of the body. (178) As the world remains extremely interdependent, whether economically, socio-culturally, religiously or politically, we are all affected by terrorism and should seek regional and international responses to combat these violent acts. Terrorists have left their marks in some way upon every country in the world. Citizens from some 90 countries died in the attacks of September 11, 2001. Numerous States, including Afghanistan, Argentina, Colombia, Kenya, Peru, Somalia, and Sri Lanka, have had the fundamental fabric of their societies torn by endemic terrorism.

In addition, the war against terrorism is not about a clash of civilizations. Rather, it is a clash between civilization itself and those who are determined to/would destroy it. As we all unite against terrorism, let us remember that although political violence may be prevalent/widespread to the human condition, we can’t tolerate terrorists who seek to combine the powers of modern technology and weapons of mass destruction to threaten the very notion of civilized society. In our quest to promote peace and security, good governance, democracy, sustainable development, and the respect of human rights, we shall strive to fight those who disregard the rule of law and share the misguided belief that killing, kidnapping, extorting, robbing, and wreaking confusion/disaster/chaos to terrorize people are legitimate forms of political action. Victory on the war on terror requires a collective/universal and proactive effort to guarantee that our brothers and sisters, children, and future generations live free from fear and anxiety. As such, the CTC encourages Member States to engage in regional, sub-regional, and international dialogs, share technical and intelligence data towards the elimination of terrorism, and implement the stipulations listed in Resolution 1373 (2001). (179)

As you begin your research, you should also consider the following questions: How does your State protect its citizens from terrorism? How does your State ensure that its counter-terrorism policies do not, any more than sovereignty, become an all-embracing concept that is used to conceal or justify human rights’ violations? How do you suggest that the international community collaborate to combat terrorism much more effectively and efficiently? What new international strategies and legal doctrine should the international community utilize to protect civilians, humanitarian aid workers, refugees, and diplomatic officials living and/or working in armed conflict zones or ‘rogue’ States? What else should the global community do to bring more awareness and prevent the spread of terrorism around the world (e.g. Strengthen the communication relationship among the intelligence agencies, organize workshops or forums, etc)? What are other practical cases of nascent or on-going terrorist activities in conflict zones (e.g. Cases in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East…)? What is the media’s role in informing the public accurately about the seriousness and slow-moving fight against all forms of terrorism? Are there universal root causes of terrorism? What are some underlying conditions that provide fertile ground for terrorists to plant their seeds? How will the entire peace process evolve between Israel and Palestine in light of Arafat’s death? Will Arafat’s successor(s) and the Israeli leadership cooperate to appease the existing tensions and progressively reach harmonious solutions for their people? Are religiously motivated terrorists like Al-Qaeda less restrained than other terrorist organizations? Do you believe that the US is better equipped to fight against the war on terror with the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the re-organization of the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration, the CIA, and FBI, and the implementation of the Patriot Act? Do you foresee a better intelligence leadership at the CIA and FBI that will adopt and enforce measures to counter terrorism while respecting civil liberties?

Notes: Annotated Bibliography

The Concept of Terrorism

(1) Powell, Colin. U.S. Secretary of State (n.d.) It is important to remember that citizens from some 90 countries died in the attacks of September 11. Moreover, last fall’s bombings in Bali reminded us all that terrorism is lurking in Southeast Asia as well. Secretary of State, Colin Powell, recently stated: “In the global campaign against terrorism, no country has the luxury of remaining on the sidelines. There are no sidelines. Terrorists respect no limits, geographic or moral. The frontlines are everywhere and the stakes are high.” Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/

(2) Retrieved October 7, 2004 from http://cfrterrorism.org/terrorism/introduction.html

(3) Marie T. Huhtala, U.S. Ambassador to Malaysia; Remarks to the Rotary International Dinner Forum in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, regarding terrorism: “Terrorism - A Threat to World Peace?” February 22, 2003 Retrieved October 7, 2004, from [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/2003/17989.htm

(4) Bruce Hoffman, of the Research and Development (RAND) Corporation think tank, is an internationally recognized expert on terrorism who has been studying terrorism and terrorist groups, and insurgency and guerrillas for nearly 30 years. He recently served as Acting Director of RAND’s Center for Middle East Public Policy. He was RAND’s Vice-President for External Affairs from 2001-2004. Columbia University Press in the United States and Orion Books in Britain and foreign language editions published his latest book, Inside Terrorism, in nine countries. He is a regular contributor to the Atlantic Monthly and was the author of The Logic of Suicide Terrorism, which was the cover story of the June 2003 issue. In recognition of his academic contributions to the study of political violence, he was awarded the first Santiago Grisolia Prize and accompanying Chair in Violence Studies by the Queen Sofia Center for the Study of Violence in Valencia, Spain, in June 1998. In 1994, he received the U.S. Intelligence Community Award Medallion, the highest level of award presented to a non-government employee. Major networks, including NPR’s “Morning Edition” and “All Things Considered” interviewed him on terrorism-related issues. He frequently wrote newspaper articles in New York Times, Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, and L.A. Times, and published articles on terrorism in The Atlantic Monthly and Foreign Policy. Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.rand.org/news/experts/hoffman.html

(5) White, Jonathan R. (2002). Terrorism: An Introduction (4th ed.). New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company, p. 3.

(6) Ibid., p. 3-4

(7) The US State Department’s definition of terrorism. Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/

(8) Pillar, Paul. Former Deputy Chief of the CIA’s Counter terrorist Center. (n.d.). Comments regarding the definition and nature of terrorism. Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/

(9) The CTC’s aims to define terrorism. Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/definition.html

(10) Brian Jenkins is a senior advisor to the president of the Research and Development (RAND) Corporation, a nonprofit research organization providing objective analysis and effective solutions that address the challenges facing the public and private sectors around the world (e.g. terrorism). Among his numerous accomplishments, Jenkins founded the RAND Corporation’s terrorism research program in 1972, wrote frequently on terrorism, and served as an advisor to the federal government and the private sector on the subject. In 1996, President Clinton appointed him as a member of the White House Commission on Aviation Safety and Security. He served as an advisor to the National Commission on Terrorism (1999-2000) and was a member of the U.S. Comptroller General’s Advisory Board in 2000. He is also a special advisor to the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and a member of the board of directors of the ICC’s Commercial Crime Services. He authored many books, including International Terrorism: A New Mode of Conflict, and edited and coauthored Terrorism and Personal Protection, and The Fall of South Vietnam. He wrote various newspaper articles in New York Times, Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, and L.A. Times as well as Associated Press and Reuters’ news services. He is frequently interviewed on terrorism-related issues on all three major U.S. networks, BBC, CNN, and Fox News Channel.Retrieved October 7, 2004 from http://www.rand.org/about/ and http://www.rand.org/news/experts/jenkins.html

(11) United Nations. (2004). Global Program against Terrorism: Momentum for increased international action against terrorism. Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism.html

(12) United Nations. (2004). Conventions against Terrorism. Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html

(13) Ibid.

(14) The website relates to the efforts of the UN General Assembly Sixth Committee, 57th session, in defining terrorism and eliminating this reprehensible dilemma. Retrieved October 7, 2004.

(15) These document include the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons (1973 – Outlaws attacks on senior government officials and diplomats), the International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages (Hostages Convention, 1979), and the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999). For more information, including the full text of each convention, see: United Nations, Conventions against Terrorism, supra, note 12. Retrieved October 7, 2004

Introductory Remarks

(16) Annan, Kofi. (n.d.). Comments on the work of the CTC. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/definition.html

History of the Counter Terrorism Committee

(17) United Nations Security Council. (2001, September 28). Mandatory Action to Fight Terrorism. (S/RES/1373). New York: Author. These links provides some information of the creation/origins, the work/mission and collaboration of the CTC with other Bodies and Member States, and its expectations from Member States, etc… Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/ and http://www.un.org/Docs/ sc/committees/1373/mandate.html

(18) The UN Security Council information. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from www.un.org/Docs/sc

(19) The UN Charter 1:1:1. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from www.un.org/aboutun/charter

(20) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (n.d.). Working with the Security Council. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/ 1373/sc.html

(21) United Nations Security Council. (2001, October 4). Note by the President of the Security Council and Procedural developments in the Security Council. (S/2001/935). This Security Council resolution and link provide ample information on the detailed composition of the CTC Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/ committees/1373/composition.html

(22) United Nations Security Council. (2003, April 4). Statement by the President of the Security Council. (S/PRST/2003/3). “The Security Council recalls the statement of its President of October 8, 2002, S/PRST/2002/26, which recorded its intention to review the structure and activities of the CTC no later than 4 April 2003. The Council thanks Ambassador Greenstock (United Kingdom) for his chairmanship of the CTC during the first 18 months of its work, and confirms the appointment of Ambassador Arias (Spain) as the new Chairman. The Council confirms the continuation in office of Ambassador Gaspar Martins (Angola), Ambassador Aguilar Zinser (Mexico) and Ambassador Lavrov (Russian Federation) as Vice-Chairmen of the Committee.” The Council also considered avenues to deal with the numerous threats related to international peace and security. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.int/mexico/sc/N0331089.pdf, p. 1

(23) United Nations Security Counter-Terrorism Committee. (n.d.). Composition of the CTC. (S/2004/436) and (2004, March 8). New Permanent Representative Of Russian Federation Presents Credentials. (BIO/3587). Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/News/ Press/docs/2004/bio3587.doc.htm and http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/composition.html This Security Council resolution summarizes the Security Council’s President thoughts regarding the decision of the Council’s members to elect the Chairman and Vice-Chairmen of the CTC following the adoption of resolution 1373 (2001). This press release provides the biographical note and credentials of the CTC’s new permanent representative from the Russian Federation, His Excellency Mr. Andrey I. Denisov.

(24) Counter Terrorism Sub-Committees. The CTC website provides ample information about the CTC’s three sub-committees and their respective chairs and members. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/composition.html

(25) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (n.d.). States’ Report. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/reports.html

(26) This website provides some background information on the formation or decision to create the CTC. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/ 1373/mandate.html

(27) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (2004). The CTC Sub-Committees. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/sub-committees.html

(28) This link summarizes the CTC’s expectations of Member States. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/ask.html

(29) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (2001, October 26). (Note Verbale SCA/20/01(6)) Resolution 1373 (2001) requests that all States report to the CTC on the steps taken or planned to implement the resolution. In the aforementioned note Verbale, the CTC Chairman presents and explains the reports’ timetable and a framework for Member States. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/reports.html

(30) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (2004). How does the CTC work with/help States? Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/work.html This document from the CTC’s website titled, ‘How does the CTC help States?’ outlines how Security Council Resolution 1377 allowed the CTC to assist Member States. It especially explores the promotion of best practices and the availability of existing technical assistance programs with international, regional and sub-regional organizations, all within the framework of Resolution 1373. It also suggests that the Committee can’t and is not an assistance provider.

(31) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (2004). Functions of the Technical Assistance Team. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/tat.html This document, obtained from the CTC’s website, lists the four major functions of the CTC Technical Assistance Team (TAT). It talks about the on-going relationship that needs to exist between the CTC, the TAT, and Member States. It further analyzes the importance of assisting Member States in implementing Resolution 1373 (2001).

(32) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (2004). The CTC Sub-Committees. Retrieved October 10, 2004 from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/sub-committees.html, supra, note 27. This source refers to the CTC’s three sub-committees, their composition, structure, role, and chairmen selections. The document also discusses how their meetings are prepared and held.

(33) This link talks about the CTC’s working relationship with Member States. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/work.html, supra, note 30.

I. Combating Acts of Terror Against Internationally Protected Persons

(34) Annan, Kofi. (2001, November 6). United Nations Press Release. Retrieved October 20, 2004, from http://www.escwa.org.ib/information/press/un/2001/6nov_2.html

(35) Inventory of International Nonproliferation Organizations and Regimes Center for Nonproliferation Studies Retrieved October 20, 2004 from http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/inven/pdfs/intlprot.pdf, p. 1

(36) United Nations. (1973). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons. Retrieved October 20, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/ terrorism_convention_protected_persons.html

(37) Shamwell, H.F., Jr. (1983). United States Department of State. Implementing the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents. Terrorism, Vol. 6, Issue 4, p. 529-544

(38) United Nations. (1973, December 14). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons. The Convention provides a clear definition of the expression 'internationally protected persons’ and explains States Parties’ obligations to establish their jurisdiction over the offences described within the document. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/ unodc/terrorism_convention_protected_persons.html; and, http://untreaty.un.org/English/tersumen.htm#1 and http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism/Conv4.pdf

(39) Ibid.

(40) Ibid.

(41) The Millennium Assembly and the Millennium Summit, held from September 6-8, 2000 Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.un.org/millennium/sg/report/fact.htm

(42) Report of the Secretary-General “We the peoples: the role of the United Nations in the 21st century” (A/54/2000). Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.un.org/millennium/summit.htm

(43) Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Humanitarian Aid Worker(s) held captive or disappeared for more than a year Three unknown gunmen in the Russian Republic’s capital, Malachkala, abducted a Dutch humanitarian worker, Arjan Erkel, head of mission for MSF in Dagestan. Aid workers like him are largely defenseless against these abuses. They do not use or carry weapons. They do not travel in armor. Their goal is to aid or assist to people in need or crisis. MSF’ workers are usually the first to arrive on the scene and the last to leave. They rely on the trust that the powerful of the world – those with armies and guns – will leave them out of their equations of violence. They observe the laws that provide some space for humanity in the midst of war. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.msf.org/countries/page.cfm? articleid=0002F19C-887C-45B2-B7D40991EC7B468D and http://www.msf.org/countries/page.cfm?articleid=06694DF8-340C-4DB9-B23994BE20B9A036

(44) Union of International Associations Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons; Appendix 5.5 of the International Associations Statutes Series vol 1, UIA eds (1988). Comité International de la Croix-Rouge. Table Ronde sur le statut du personnel et des volontaires des organisations Internationales et nationales dans les actions humanitaires. Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, 69, Juillet- Août, 1987, no 766, pp. 454-456 [The English version is available in the International Review of the Red Cross] Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.uia.org /legal/app55.php

(45) B’nai B’rith. (1999, March). Seven Years and Counting: The 1992 Israeli Embassy Bombing in Buenos Aires. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Terrorism/argentina.html

(46) Ibid.

(47) Ibid.

(48) United States Department of State. (2004, April 29). Patterns of Global Terrorism-2003. Washington D.C: Author.

(49) Cable News Network (CNN). (2003, August 20). Truck Bomb Kills United Nations Envoy to Iraq. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://cnn.worldnews.printthis.clickability.com/pt/cpt?action=cpt& amp;title=CNN.com+-+Truck+bomb+kills+chief+U.N.+envoy+to+Iraq+-+Aug.+20%2C+2003&expire=- 1&urlID=7360768&fb=Y&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2003%2FWORLD%2 Fmeast%2F08%2F19%2Fsprj.irq.main%2F&partnerID=2006

(50) United Nations. (2001, October 1). United Nations Daily Highlights. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.hri.org/cgi-bin/brief?/news/world/undh/2001/01-10-11.undh.html

(51) Multilateral Treaty Framework: An Invitation to Universal Participation, Focus 2004: Treaties on the Protection of Civilians. (2004, September 21-24) Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://untreaty.un.org/English/TreatyEvent2004/book_E.pdf, p. 6

(52) United Nations. (2004). Conventions Against Terrorism. Retrieved July 13, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html

(53) United Nations General Assembly. (1979, December 18). International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages. New York: United Nations Publications, Article 1. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html

(54) United Nations International Law Commission. (1961, April 18). Vienna Declaration on Diplomatic Relations. Vienna: United Nations Publications, Preamble.

(55) Ibid., Article 28.

(56) Ibid., Article 45.

(57) United Nations, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, supra, note 38.

(58) Ibid.

(59) UN Office on Drugs and Crime. United Nations General Assembly. (1979, December 18). International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages. New York: United Nations Publications, Preamble. The Convention applies to the offence of direct involvement or complicity in the seizure or detention of, and threat to kill, injure or continue to detain a hostage, whether actual or attempted, in order to compel a State, an international intergovernmental organization, a person or a group of persons, to do or abstain from doing any act as an explicit or implicit condition for the release of the hostage. Each State Party is required to make this offence punishable by appropriate penalties. Where hostages are held in the territory of a State Party, the State Party is obligated to take all measures it considers appropriate to ease the situation of the hostages and secure their release. After the release of the hostages, States Parties are obligated to facilitate the departure of the hostages. Each State Party is obligated to take such actions as may be necessary to establish jurisdiction over the offence of taking of hostages. States Parties have obligations to establish their jurisdiction over the offences described, make the offences punishable by appropriate penalties, take alleged offenders into custody, prosecute or extradite alleged offenders, cooperate in preventive measures, and exchange information and evidence needed in related criminal proceedings. The offences referred to in the Convention are deemed to be extraditable offences between States Parties under existing extradition treaties, and under the Convention itself. Retrieved October 20, 2004, from http://untreaty.un.org/English/tersumen.htm#1

(60) United States Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism-2003, supra, note 48.

(61) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (n.d.). Counter-Terrorism Committee Mandate. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373.htm

(62) Ibid.

(63) United States Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism-2003, supra, note 48

(64) United Nations General Assembly. (1989, November 20). Convention on the Rights of the Child. (GA/RES/22/25). New York: United Nations Publications.

(65) United Nations General Assembly. (1949, August 12). Fourth Geneva Convention (Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War). Geneva: United Nations Publications, Article III.

II. Combating Narco-Terrorism

(66) Jaime Malamud-Goti, Smoke and Mirrors: The Paradox of the Drug Wars (Boulder Colorado: Westview Press, 1992), p. ix.

(67) Retrieved October 25, 2004, from the US DEA website www.dea.gov and link www.usdoj.gov/dea

(68) Ibid.

(69) Retrieved on October 20, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/havens/Columbia.html This website talks about the prevalence of narco-terrorism in Columbia.

(70) Retrieved on October 20, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/havens/Lebanon.html This website talks about the prevalence of narco-terrorism in Lebanon.

(71) Retrieved on October 20, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/havens/Afghanistan/country.html This website talks about the prevalence of narco-terrorism in Afghanistan.

(72) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from the United States DEA website www.dea.gov and link available at www.usdoj.gov/dea

(73) Retrieved October 20, 2004, from the US DEA website www.dea.gov and link www.usdoj.gov/dea

(74) Retrieved on October 20, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/farc.html This website talks about the principal terrorist organizations in Columbia.

(75) Ibid.

(76) Ibid.

(77) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/shiningpath.html This website depicts the operations of the Shining Path, a Peruvian leftist group.

(78) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/tamiltigers.html This website depicts the operations of the Tamil Tiger group from Sri Lanka.

(79) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/hezbollah.html This website depicts the operations of the Hezbollah organization.

(80) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/kurdistan.html This website depicts the terrorist operations of the Kurdistan organization.

(81) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/realira.html This website depicts the operations of the IRA.

(82) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/sponsors/syria.html This website depicts the operations of Syria in the field of terrorism.

(83) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from http://cfrterrorism.org/havens/lebanon.html This website depicts Lebanon’s affiliations with terrorist activities.

(84) Retrieved on October 25, 2004, from the United States DEA website www.dea.gov and link available at www.usdoj.gov/dea

(85) Ibid.

(86) Ibid.

(87) Ibid.

(88) Ibid.

(89) Ibid.

(90) Ibid.

(91) Ibid.

(92) United Nations Office on Drug and Crime Prevention. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.un.org/issues/m-crime.asp; http://www.unodc.org/unodc/cnd.html; and http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html

(93) United Nations General Assembly. (1998, June 10). Political Declaration on the International Cooperation against the World Drug Problem. (A/RES/S-20/2). Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1998-06-10_1.html This document asserts “drugs are a great threat to the health and mankind, the independence of States, democracy, the stability of nations, the structure of all societies, and the dignity and hope of millions of people and their families.”

(94) International Cooperation against the world drug problem. (1998, December 9). (A/RES/53/115). Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1998-12-09_1.html Civil society, including non-governmental organizations, can make an effective contribution to and should play an active role in addressing the world drug problems.

(95) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Resolutions and treaties to fight against drugs and crime. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/un_treaties_and_resolutions.html and http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/drug_and_crime_conventions.html

(96) United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocols. Retrieved October 25, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crime_cicp_convention.html

(97) Ibid.

(98) United Nations General Assembly. (2001, January 8). The Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Air and Sea supplements the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. (A/RES/55/25). Retrieved October 28, 2004 from http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/ a_res_55/res5525e.pdf Additional Protocols supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crime_cicp_convention.html#background

(99) Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crime_cicp_convention.html#background

(100) Ibid.

(101) United Nations General Assembly. (2001, June 8). The Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, supplements the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. (A/RES/55/255). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/a_res_55/255e.pdf

(102) United Nations General Assembly. (2000, December 4). The General Assembly resolution 55/61 recognized the importance of having an effective international legal instrument against corruption, independent of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (A/RES/55/25, annex I).

(103) United Nations Convention against Corruption. (2003, October 31). (A/RES/58/4). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crime_cicp_convention.html

(104) Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocols. First Session held in Vienna, Austria. (2004, June 28-July 9). Pursuant to article 32 of the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocols. Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crime_toc_parties.html

(105) The International Narcotic Control Board (INCB). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.incb.org/

(106) The Single Convention on Narcotic drugs. (1961). Retrieved on October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/pdf/convention_1961_en.pdf and http://www.unodc.org/unodc/un_treaties_and_resolutions.html

(107) The Convention on Psychotropic Substances. (1971). Retrieved on October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/pdf/convention_1971_en.pdf and http://www.unodc.org/unodc/un_treaties_and_resolutions.html

(108) The Convention on Psychotropic Substances. (1971). Article 21, “Action Against Illicit Traffic”. Retrieved on October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/un_treaties_and_resolutions.html

(109) The United States Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. (1988). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/pdf/convention_1988_en.pdf

(110) The United States Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. (1988). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/un_treaties_and_resolutions.html

(111) Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) - Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice. (1992, February). (Extracted from: United Nations Action in the field of Human Rights, Sales No. E. 94.XIV.11) There are 40 members elected by the Council based on the principle of equitable geographical distribution, including African States [12], Asian States [9], Latin American and Caribbean States [8], Western European and other States [7], and Eastern European States [4]. The size and geographical distribution of the Commission may be reviewed two years after its first session. Retrieved October 28, 2004 from http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/2/crimepr.htm

(112) Ibid.

(113) The World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/en/ This website provides information pertaining to the World Health Organization’s efforts in assisting the United Nations and its Member States regarding psychoactive substance use, abuse, and dependence.

(114) The World Health Organization (WHO) and its World Health Assembly (WHA). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/resolutions/en/

(115) The World Health Organization (WHO). (WHA30.18). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/en/WHA30.18.pdf]

(116) The Prevention and control of drug and alcohol abuse. (1989, May 17). (WHA42.20). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/en/WHA42.20.pdf

(117) The Reduction of Demand for Illicit Drugs. (1990, May 16). (WHA43.11). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/en/WHA43.11.pdf

(118) The Health of Youth. (1989, May 5). (WHA42.4). Retrieved October 28, 2004, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/en/WHA42.41.pdf

III. Promotion of Collective Action Against International Terrorism

(119) Annan, Kofi. (2003, June 3). Special Meeting of Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism. (SC/7679). Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/SC7679.doc.htm

(120) Bassiouri, M. Cherif. (2001). International Terrorism: Multilateral Conventions (1937-2001). New York: Transnational Publishers, p. 8.

(121) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (2004). Functions of the Technical Assistance Team. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/tat.html

(122) Ibid.

(123) Ibid.

(124) Hunte, Julian Robert H. E. (2003, October 24). Statement by the President of the Fifty-eighth Session of the United Nations General Assembly on the Occasion of United Nations Day. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/ga/president/58/speeches/031024-2.htm

(125) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (n.d.). Momentum for Increased International Action Against Terrorism. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/en/terrorism.htlm

(126) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (n.d.). Counter-Terrorism Committee Mandate. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373.htm

(127) United Nations Security Council. (2001, September 28). Mandatory Action to Fight Terrorism. (S/RES/1373). New York: Author. This resolution is the most pivotal document that the CTC discusses and implements. It is responsible for the creation of the CTC as a sub-committee of the United Nations Security Council. For more information on Resolution 1373, see: United Nations Security Council, Mandatory Action to Fight Terrorism.

(128) United Nations General Assembly. (1987, December 7). Measures to Prevent International Terrorism. (A/RES/42/159). New York: Author. This resolution is a report of the Secretary-General following an international conference, convened under the auspices of the United Nations, to define terrorism and differentiate it from the struggle of peoples for national liberation. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/a42r159.htm

(129) United Nations Counter Terrorism Committee. (n.d.). Regional Action. Retrieved November 2, 2004 from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/regional_action.html

(130) Arias, Inocencio. (2003, October 7). President of the Counter-Terrorism Committee addressing issues of terrorism at the meeting of Organization of American States. New York: United Nations Publications.

(131) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Legislative Guide to the Universal Anti-Terrorism Conventions and Protocols, supra, note 153, p. 6-7.

(132) Ibid.

(133) International Criminal Police Organization. (n.d.). Interpol’s Mission Statement. Retrieved August 7, 2004, from http://www.interpol.int/Public/Icpo/default.asp

(134) International Criminal Police Organization. (n.d.). Interpol’s involvement in the fight against international terrorism. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.interpol.int/Public/Terrorism/default.asp

(135) Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering. (2003, June 20). The Forty Recommendations. Retrieved July 14, 2004, from http://www/fatf-gafi.org/pdf/40Recs-2003_en.pdf, p.3.

(136) Ibid.

(137) The African Union. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.africa-union.org/

(138) The African Union. (2004, May 25). Solemn Launching of the Peace and Security Council. Report of the Chairperson of the Commission on the Establishment of a Continental Peace and Security Architecture and the Status of Peace Processes in Africa. (PSC/AHG/3(IX)). Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.africa-union.org/Reports/Report%20of%20CP%20 launching%20of%20the%20PSC.pdf

(139) The African Union. Declaration on the Second High-Level Intergovernmental Meeting on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa. (2004, October 13-14). (Mtg/HLIG/Conv.Terror/Decl. (II) Rev. 2). Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.africa-union.org/Terrorism/terrorism2.htm and http://www.africa-union.org/Terrorism/DECLARATION%20Algiers%20REV.pdf

(140) Ibid.

(141) United Nations Legislative Series. (2004). International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism. New York: United Nations Publications, p. 2-113.

(142) Ibid., p. 212

(143) Ibid., p. 211

(144) The African Union. Preventing and Combating Terrorism in Africa {2nd High Level Inter-Governmental Meeting on Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.africa-union.org/Terrorism/terrorism2.htm

(145) United Nations Foundation. United Nations Press Releases on Terrorism. The Secretary General commends African efforts against terrorism. (SG/SM/7999-AFR/344). Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/SGSM7999.doc.htm and http://www.unfoundation.org/ programs/pshr/terrorism/documents/un_pr.asp

(146) United Nations Legislative Series. (2004). International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism. New York: United Nations Publications, supra, note 141, p. 188

(147) Ibid., p. 195-196

(148) Association of Southeast Asian Nations. (2001, November 5). ASEAN Efforts to Counter Terrorism. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.aseansec.org/14396.htm

(149) Ibid.

(150) Ibid.

(151) [Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe. (2004). Stage A: Creating legislative framework. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.osce.org/atu/stages/stageA.php

(152) United Nations Legislative Series. (2004). International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism. New York: United Nations Publications, supra, note 141.

(153) Ibid.

(154) Ibid., p. 153

(155) Ibid., p. 154

(156) Huhtala, Marie T. (2003, February 22). Terrorism - A Threat to World Peace? Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/2003/17989.htm Marie T Huhtala, U.S. Ambassador to Malaysia, delivered a few remarks to the Rotary International Dinner Forum held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

(157) Ibid.

(158) Ibid.

(160) Ibid.

(161) Annan, Kofi. United Nations Press Release. (2002, January 18). (SG/SM/8105-SC/7277). Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/sgsm8105.doc.htm

(162) Ibid.

(163) United Nations Foundation. UN Press Release on Human Rights. And Terrorism. (2001, May 12). (SG/SM/8067-HR/4575-OBV/255). Human Rights violations as a precursor. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/sgsm8067.doc.htm

(164) United Nations Foundation. UN Press Releases on Human Rights and Terrorism. (2002, December 4). (SG/SM/8196-HR/CN/989). Human Rights must not be sacrificed in war on terror. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.unfoundation.org/programs/pshr/terrorism/documents/ un_pr.asp; http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/sgsm8196.doc.htm

(165) Ibid.

(166) Ibid.

(167) Ibid.

(168) United Nations. (2004). Global Program against Terrorism: Momentum for increased international action against terrorism. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/ unodc/en/terrorism.html This Global Program against Terrorism is a United Nations Publication discussing a need for international action to eliminate terrorism while presenting the measures already taken by the international community to fight against terrorism. Also, it lists some of the CTC’s future goals in combating terrorism throughout the international community.

(169) Ibid.

(170) Ibid.

(171) Ibid.

(172) United Nations Security Council. (2001, September 28). Mandatory Action to Fight Terrorism. (S/RES/1373). New York: Author, supra, note 127.

(173) United Nations. (2002). The United Nations and Terrorism. (S/2002/825). Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/terrorism/a57273.htm

(174) United Nations. (1973). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.unodc.org/ unodc/terrorism_convention_protected_persons.html

Conclusion

(175) United Nations Legislative Series. (2004). International Instruments Related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism, New York: United Nations Publications, p. 2-113.

(176) Ibid., p. 264-94.

(177) Policy Working Group on the United Nations and Terrorism, Report of the Policy Group on the United Nations and Terrorism, supra, note 163, p. 7

(178) Ibid.

(179) United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee. (2004, February 19). Protecting Human Rights while countering Terrorism. The CTC is committed to promoting closer cooperation and coordination among Member States, whether regionally, sub-regionally or internationally to combat terrorism while protecting human rights. The Security Council resolution 1535 (2004, March 26) endorsed the report of the CTC on its revitalization (S/2004/124), and established the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED) to enhance the Committee’s ability to monitor the implementation of resolution 1373 (2001) and effectively continue the capacity-building work in which it is engaged. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373/cted.html In its revitalization efforts, the (CTC) plays a leading role on the fight against international terrorism. According to the UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, this fight can’t legitimately be pursued without respecting human rights. He stated, “We need a new vision of global security for this new period in international relations – a vision that can help bring about a new equilibrium. This new vision must simultaneously respect human rights, confront the asymmetric threat of terrorism, and draw, as never before, upon the resources and legitimacy of multilateral cooperation”. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://www.fride.org/eng/File/ViewFile.aspx?FileId=423